It is difficult to ascertain the time when the Brahma-sutras were written, but since they contain a refutation of almost all the other Indian systems, even of the Shunyavada Buddhism (of course according to Shankara’s interpretation), they cannot have been written very early. I think it may not be far from the truth in supposing that they were written some time in the second century B.C.

About the period 780 A.D. Gaudapada revived the monistic teaching of the Upanishads by his commentary on the Mandukya Upanishad in verse called Mandukyakarika. His disciple Govinda was the teacher of Shankara (788–820 A.D.). Shankara’s commentary on the Brahma-sutras is the root from which sprang forth a host of commentaries and studies on Vedantism of great originality, vigour, and philosophic insight. Thus Anandagiri, a disciple of Shankara, wrote a commentary called Nyayanirnaya, and Govindananda wrote another commentary named Ratna-prabha. Vacaspati Mishra, who flourished about 841 A.D., wrote another commentary on it called the Bhamati. Amalananda (1247–1260 A.D.) wrote his Kalpataru on it, and Apyayadikshita (1550 A.D.) son of Rangarajadhvarindra of Kanci wrote his Kalpataruparimala on the Kalpataru.

Another disciple of Shankara, Padmapada, also called Sanandana, wrote a commentary on it known as Pancapadika. From the manner in which the book is begun one would expect that it was to be a running commentary on the whole of Shankara’s bhasya, but it ends abruptly at the end of the fourth sutra. Madhava (1350), in his Shankaravijaya, recites an interesting story about it. He says that Sureshvara received Shankara’s permission to write a varttika on the bhasya. But other pupils objected to Shankara that since Sureshvara was formerly a great Mimamsist (Mandana Misra was called Sureshvara after his conversion to Vedantism) he was not competent to write a good varttika on the bhashya. Sureshvara, disappointed, wrote a treatise called Naishkarmyasiddhi. Padmapada wrote a tika but this was burnt in his uncle’s house. Shankara, who had once seen it, recited it from memory and Padmapada wrote it down. Prakashatman (1200) wrote a commentary on Padmapada’s Pancapadika known as Pancapadikavivarana. Akhandananda wrote his Tattvadipana, and the famous Nrisimhashrama Muni (1500) wrote his Vivaranabhavaprakashika on it. Amalananda and Vidyasagara also wrote commentaries on Pancapadika, named Pancapadikadarpana and Pancapadikatika respectively, but the Pancapadikavivarana had by far the greatest reputation. Vidyaranya who is generally identified by some with Madhava (1350) wrote his famous work Vivaranaprameyasamgraha (1), elaborating the ideas of Pancapadikavivarana; Vidyaranya wrote also another excellent work named Jivanmuktiviveka on the Vedanta doctrine of emancipation. Sureshvara’s (800 A.D.) excellent work Naishkarmyasiddhi is probably the earliest independent treatise on Shankara’s philosophy as expressed in his bhashya. It has been commented upon by Jnanottama Mishra.

Vidyaranya also wrote another work of great merit known as Pancadashi, which is a very popular and illuminating treatise in verse on Vedanta. Another important work written in verse on the main teachings of Shankara’s bhashya is Samkshepashariraka, written by Sarvajnatma Muni (900 A.D.). This has also been commented upon by Ramatirtha. Shriharsha (1190 A.D.) wrote his Khandanakhandakhadya, the most celebrated work on the Vedanta dialectic. Citsukha, who probably flourished shortly after Shriharsha, wrote a commentary on it, and also wrote an independent work on Vedanta dialectic known as Tattvadipika which has also a commentary called Nayanaprasadini written by Pratyagrupa. Shankara Mishra and Raghunatha also wrote commentaries on Khandanakhandakhadya. A work on Vedanta epistemology and the principal topics of Vedanta of great originality and merit known as Vedantaparibhasha was written by Dharmarajadhvarindra (about 155OA.D.). His son Ramakrishnadhvarin wrote his Shikhamani on it and Amaradasa his Maniprabha.

The Vedantaparibhasha with these two commentaries forms an excellent exposition of some of the fundamental principles of Vedanta. Another work of supreme importance (though probably the last great work on Vedanta) is the Advaitasiddhi of Madhusudana Sarasvati who followed Dharmarajadhvarindra. This has three commentaries known as Gaudabrahmanandi, Vitthaleshopadhyayi and Siddhivyakhya. Sadananda Vyasa wrote also a summary of it known as Advaitasiddhisiddhantasara. Sadananda wrote also an excellent elementary work named Vedantasara which has also two commentaries Subodhini and Vidvanmanoranjini. The Advaitabrahmasiddhi of Sadananda Yati though much inferior to Advaitasiddhi is important, as it touches on many points of Vedanta interest which are not dealt with in other Vedanta works. The Nyayamakaranda of Anandabodha Bhattarakacaryya treats of the doctrines of illusion very well, as also some other important points of Vedanta interest.

Vedantasiddhantamuktavali of Prakashananda discusses many of the subtle points regarding the nature of ajnana and its relations to cit, the doctrine of drishtisrishtivada, etc., with great clearness. Siddhantalesha by Apyayadikshita is very important as a summary of the divergent views of different writers on many points of interest. Vedantatattvadipika and Siddhantatattva are also good as well as deep in their general summary of the Vedanta system. Bhedadhikkara of Nrsimhashrama Muni also is to be regarded as an important work on the Vedanta dialectic.

The above is only a list of some of the most important Vedanta works on which the present chapter has been based.

1. See Narasimhacarya’s article in the Indian Antiquary, 1916.

brahma sutras, govinda, madhava, mandukya upanishad, monistic, shankara, upanishads