Though it is generally held that the Upanishads are usually attached as appendices to the Aranyakas which are again attached to the Brahmanas, yet it cannot be said that their distinction as separate treatises is always observed.

Thus we find in some cases that subjects which we should expect to be discussed in a Brahmana are introduced into the Aranyakas and the Aranyaka materials are sometimes fused into the great bulk of Upanishad teaching. This shows that these three literatures gradually grew up in one process of development and they were probably regarded as parts of one literature, in spite of the differences in their subject-matter. Deussen supposes that the principle of this division was to be found in this, that the Brahmanas were intended for the householders, the Aranyakas for those who in their old age withdrew into the solitude of the forests and the Upanishads for those who renounced the world to attain ultimate salvation by meditation. Whatever might be said about these literary classifications the ancient philosophers of India looked upon the Upanishads as being of an entirely different type from the rest of the Vedic literature as dictating the path of knowledge (jnana-marga) as opposed to the path of works (karma-marga) which forms the content of the latter. It is not out of place here to mention that the orthodox Hindu view holds that whatever may be written in the Veda is to be interpreted as commandments to perform certain actions (vidhi) or prohibitions against committing certain others (nishedha). Even the stories or episodes are to be so interpreted that the real objects of their insertion might appear as only to praise the performance of the commandments and to blame the commission of the prohibitions.

No person has any right to argue why any particular Vedic commandment is to be followed, for no reason can ever discover that, and it is only because reason fails to find out why a certain Vedic act leads to a certain effect that the Vedas have been revealed as commandments and prohibitions to show the true path of happiness. The Vedic teaching belongs therefore to that of the Karma-marga or the performance of Vedic duties of sacrifice, etc. The Upanishads however do not require the performance of any action, but only reveal the ultimate truth and reality, a knowledge of which at once emancipates a man. Readers of Hindu philosophy are aware that there is a very strong controversy on this point between the adherents of the Vedanta (Upanishads) and those of the Veda. For the latter seek in analogy to the other parts of the Vedic literature to establish the principle that the Upanishads should not be regarded as an exception, but that they should also be so interpreted that they might also be held out as commending the performance of duties; but the former dissociate the Upanishads from the rest of the Vedic literature and assert that they do not make the slightest reference to any Vedic duties, but only delineate the ultimate reality which reveals the highest knowledge in the minds of the deserving.

There are about 112 Upanishads which have been published by the “Nirnaya-Sagara” Press, Bombay, 1917. These are

1 Isa, 2 Kena, 3 Katha, 4 Prashna, 5 Mundaka, 6 Mandukya, 7 Taittiriya, 7 Aitareya, 9 Chandogya, 10 Brihadaranyaka, 11 Shvetashvatara, 12 Kaushitaki, 13 Maitreyi, 14 Kaivalya, 15 Jabala, 16 Brahmabindu, 17 Hamsa, 18 Arunika, 19 Garbha, 20 Narayana, 21 Narayana, 22 Paramahamsa, 23 Brahma, 24 Amritanada, 25 Atharvashiras, 26 Atharvashikha, 27 Maitrayani, 28 Brihajjabala, 29 Nrisi@mhapurvatapini, 30 Nrisimhottaratapini, 31 Kalagnirudra, 32 Subala, 33 Kshurika, 34 Yantrika, 35 Sarvasara, 36 Niralamba, 37 Shukarahasya, 38 Vajrasucika, 39 Tejobindu, 40 Nadabindu, 41 Dhyanabindu, 42 Brahmavidya, 43 Yogatattva, 44 Atmabodha, 45 Naradaparivrajaka, 46 Trishikhibrahmana, 47 Sita, 48 Yogacudamani, 49 Nirvana, 50 Mandalabrahmana, 51 Dakshinamurtti, 52 Sharabha, 53 Skanda, 54 Tripadvibhutimahanaryana, 55 Advayataraka, 56 Ramarahasya, 57 Ramapurvatapini, 58 Ramottaratapini, 59 Vasudeva, 60 Mudgala, 61 Sandilya, 62 Paingala, 63 Bhikshuka, Maha, 65 Shariraka, 66 Yogashikha, 67 Turiyatita, 68 Samnyasa, 69 Paramahamsaparivrajaka, 70 Akshamala, 71 Avyakta, 72 Ekakshara, 73 Annapurna, 74 Surya, 75 Aksi, 76 Adhyatma, 77 Kundika, 78 Savitri, 79 Atman, 80 Pa’supatabrahma, 81 Parabrahma, 82 Avadhuta, 83 Tripurarapini, 84 Devi, 85 Tripura, 86 Katharudra, 87 Bhavana, 88 Rudrahridaya, 89 Yogakundali, 90 Bhasmajabala, 91 Rudrakshajabala, 92 Ganapati, 93 Jabaladarshana, 94 Taiasara, 95 Mahavakya, 96 Paficabrahma, 97 Pranagnihotra, 98 Gopalapurvatapini, 99 Gopalottaratapini, 100 Krishna, 101 Yajnavalkya, 102 Varaha, 103 Shathyayaniya, 104 Hayagriva, 105 Dattatreya, 106 Garuda, 107 Kalisantarana, 108 Jabali, 109 Saubhagyalakshmi, 110 Sarasvatirahasya, 111 Bahvrca, 112 Muktika.

The collection of Upanishads translated by Dara shiko, Aurangzeb’s brother, contained 50 Upanishads. The Muktika Upanishad gives a list of 108 Upanishads. With the exception of the first 13 Upanishads most of them are of more or less later date. The Upanishads dealt with in this chapter are the earlier ones. Amongst the later ones there are some which repeat the purport of these, there are others which deal with the Shaiva, Shakta, the Yoga and the Vaishnava doctrines. These will be referred to in connection with the consideration of those systems in Volume II. The later Upanishads which only repeat the purport of those dealt with in this chapter do not require further mention. Some of the later Upanishads were composed even as late as the fourteenth or the fifteenth century.

Shankara the most eminent exponent of the Upanishads holds that they are meant for such superior men who are already above worldly or heavenly prosperities, and for whom the Vedic duties have ceased to have any attraction. Wheresoever there may be such a deserving person, be he a student, a householder or an ascetic, for him the Upanishads have been revealed for his ultimate emancipation and the true knowledge. Those who perform the Vedic duties belong to a stage inferior to those who no longer care for the fruits of the Vedic duties but are eager for final emancipation, and it is the latter who alone are fit to hear the Upanishads (1).
1: This is what is called the difference of fitness (adhikaribheda). Those who perform the sacrifices are not fit to hear the Upanishads and those who are fit to hear the Upanishads have no longer any necessity to perform the sacrificial duties.

ancient philosophers, aranyakas, brahmanas, hindu view, jnana, meditation, upanishads, vedas, vedic literature